Title: Cassia (Cinnamomum cassia)

Description: Cassia, also known as Chinese cinnamon, is derived from the bark of the Cinnamomum cassia tree. This tree is native to China and the bark is typically harvested in the autumn when the aromatic compounds are at their peak.

Extraction Method: The essential oil of cassia is obtained through steam distillation of the bark. This process results in a potent, spicy, and warm oil that is rich in cinnamaldehyde, which gives cassia its characteristic fragrance.

Characteristics: Cassia essential oil has a warm, sweet, and spicy aroma that is very similar to cinnamon but stronger and more intense. The oil is typically a golden yellow to reddish-brown color and is known for its robustness and tenacity.

Uses in Natural Perfumery: In natural perfumery, cassia is valued for its rich and complex scent profile. It is often used to impart warm and spicy notes to oriental and gourmand fragrances. Due to its strong aroma, cassia is typically used in small amounts as a base note or heart note to add depth and warmth to a composition.

Blending Suggestions: Cassia blends well with other spice oils such as clove, nutmeg, and ginger. It also complements the sweetness of vanilla and the richness of patchouli and sandalwood. In floral compositions, cassia can add an exotic and spicy undertone when used judiciously.

Safety Considerations: Cassia essential oil is very potent and can be a skin irritant if used undiluted. It should always be diluted in a carrier oil and used in low concentrations in perfumery. Additionally, it is important to perform a patch test to ensure there are no allergic reactions.

Reference: Steffen Arctander, Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin

Cassia, with its warm and spicy aroma, is a powerful and evocative ingredient in the natural perfumer's palette, capable of adding depth and complexity to a wide range of fragrance compositions.

Title: Champaca Absolute (Michelia champaca)

Description: Champa absolute, derived from the flowers of Michelia champaca, is an exotic, rich, and deeply floral natural perfumery material. It is known for its captivating scent that combines warm caramel, peppery vanilla, and orchid notes, reminiscent of carnation and tuberose.

Extraction Method: The absolute is obtained by extracting the concrete, which is produced through solvent extraction of the yellow, magnolia-like flowers. These flowers grow on a medium-sized tree native to Indonesia, India, and Madagascar. In addition to the absolute, a CO2 extract of champaca is also available, which emphasizes the spicy caramel notes over the lily-type floral scent.

Characteristics: Champa absolute is celebrated for its unique fragrance profile. Steffen Arctander describes it as "delicately dry-floral," with nuances that remind one of orange flowers, ylang-ylang, carnation, and tearose. The absolute has a warm, deep floral aroma, while the CO2 extract is spicier and more caramel-like.

Uses in Natural Perfumery: In natural perfumery, champaca absolute is favored for its rich, exotic floral scent. It adds depth and complexity to floral compositions and blends exceptionally well with other floral notes such as carnation and rose. It is ideal for creating perfumes with an oriental or floral character.

Blending Suggestions: Champa absolute blends harmoniously with carnation, rose, and other delicate floral notes. It works well with fixatives that do not overpower its delicate scent, such as sandalwood, araucaria, benzoin, ambrette, and ambergris. In dilution, it reveals a soft, floral tea-like note.

Reference: Steffen Arctander, Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin, p.160

Champa absolute, with its rich and multifaceted floral aroma, is a valuable ingredient for natural perfumers seeking to create luxurious and exotic fragrance compositions.

Title: Chord

Description: A chord in perfumery, also known as an accord, refers to a harmonious combination of three or more aromatic ingredients that blend together to create a single, unified essence. This combination is designed to achieve a specific scent profile that is greater than the sum of its parts.

Characteristics:

• Complexity: A chord typically exhibits a complexity that makes it stand out in a perfume composition, providing depth and richness to the overall scent.
• Balance: The key to a successful chord is the balance between the individual notes, ensuring that no single component dominates the blend.
• Harmony: The elements of a chord work together harmoniously, creating a seamless and well-rounded aroma.

Usage in Natural Perfumery: In natural perfumery, chords are used to build the foundation of a fragrance. They serve as the backbone of the perfume, around which other notes are layered to create a complex and multi-dimensional scent. Natural perfumers often craft chords from essential oils, absolutes, and other natural extracts to achieve the desired olfactory effect.

Examples:

• Floral Chord: A blend of rose, jasmine, and ylang-ylang essential oils to create a rich floral essence.
• Citrus Chord: A combination of bergamot, sweet orange, and lemon oils to produce a vibrant and fresh citrus scent.
• Woody Chord: A mix of sandalwood, cedarwood, and vetiver oils for a deep, earthy, and grounding aroma.

Importance: Creating effective chords is a fundamental skill in perfumery. It requires an understanding of how different scents interact and complement each other. Mastering the art of blending chords allows perfumers to craft intricate and captivating fragrances.

A chord, therefore, is not just a random mixture of scents, but a carefully constructed combination that provides a solid foundation and enhances the overall perfume composition.

Title: Chypre

Description: Chypre is a classic fragrance family characterized by a dominating blend of bergamot and oakmoss, rounded off with rich, woody essences such as patchouli and labdanum. The name "Chypre" comes from the French word for Cyprus, inspired by the Mediterranean island where these aromatic materials were traditionally sourced.

Characteristics:

• Citrus Top Notes: Bright and fresh notes, typically from bergamot, which give an initial burst of zestiness.
• Woody and Mossy Heart: The heart of a chypre fragrance is grounded by oakmoss, lending a deep, earthy, and slightly damp aroma.
• Rich Base Notes: The base notes often include patchouli and labdanum, providing warmth, complexity, and a lingering finish.

Usage in Natural Perfumery: In natural perfumery, chypre fragrances are valued for their sophistication and complexity. Perfumers use natural extracts and essential oils to craft these multifaceted scents, adhering to traditional methods and ingredients.

Composition:

• Top Notes: Bergamot essential oil, providing a fresh and lively citrus burst.
• Heart Notes: Oakmoss absolute or tincture, delivering earthy and mossy nuances.
• Base Notes: Patchouli essential oil and labdanum resin, adding depth and a rich, warm undertone.

Examples:

• Classic Chypre: A natural blend featuring bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum.
• Floral Chypre: Incorporating natural floral notes like rose or jasmine into the traditional chypre structure.
• Woody Chypre: Emphasizing the woody aspects with additional notes such as vetiver or cedarwood.

Importance: Chypre fragrances are celebrated for their balance and longevity. The interplay between the fresh top notes and the rich, earthy base creates a dynamic and enduring scent profile. These fragrances often evolve over time, revealing different facets as they dry down.

Ref: Steffen Arctander; Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin

A well-crafted chypre fragrance showcases the art of blending natural materials to create a harmonious and sophisticated scent experience.

Title: Citrus Notes

Description: Citrus notes refer to the bright, fresh, and uplifting fragrances derived from the peel, leaves, and sometimes the flowers of various citrus fruits. These notes are often used in natural perfumery to add a sparkling and refreshing top note to fragrance compositions.

Characteristics:

• Bright and Fresh: Citrus notes are known for their invigorating and lively scent.
• Zesty and Tangy: They often have a sharp, tangy quality that can uplift the entire fragrance.
• Volatile: Citrus oils are typically top notes due to their high volatility, meaning they evaporate quickly but make an immediate impression.

Common Citrus Essences:

• Orange (Citrus sinensis): Sweet, bright, and fruity.
• Lemon (Citrus limon): Sharp, tangy, and refreshing.
• Lime (Citrus aurantiifolia): Tart, zesty, and vibrant.
• Bergamot (Citrus bergamia): Sweet, tangy, and slightly floral.
• Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi): Fresh, tangy, and slightly bitter.
• Yuzu (Citrus junos): Complex, with a blend of tartness and sweetness.
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus): Lemony, grassy, and slightly herbaceous.

Uses in Natural Perfumery:

• Top Notes: Citrus essences are predominantly used as top notes in perfumery, providing an immediate burst of freshness.
• Blending: They blend well with floral, herbal, and woody notes, adding complexity and lift to the fragrance.
• Versatility: Citrus notes are versatile and can be used in a wide range of perfume types, from light and fresh colognes to more complex and layered compositions.

Benefits:

• Uplifting: Citrus notes are known for their mood-enhancing and uplifting properties.
• Versatile: Suitable for both men’s and women’s fragrances.
• Natural Antioxidants: Many citrus oils contain natural antioxidants, adding an extra benefit to their use.

Example Combinations:

• With Florals: Citrus notes can be paired with floral notes like jasmine, rose, or neroli to create a balanced and harmonious blend.
• With Herbs: Combining citrus with herbal notes like basil, rosemary, or lavender can produce fresh and aromatic fragrances.
• With Woods: Pairing with woody notes such as cedarwood or sandalwood can add depth and longevity to the bright citrus top notes.

Noteworthy Points:

• Photosensitivity: Some citrus oils, particularly bergamot, can cause photosensitivity, leading to skin irritation when exposed to sunlight. It’s essential to use bergaptene-free (FCF) versions for topical applications.
• Sourcing: High-quality citrus oils are typically cold-pressed from the peel of the fruit, ensuring the preservation of their fresh and vibrant scent.

Title: Classic

A scent that follows a traditional perfumery template, utilising a higher percentage of floral notes to create an essence with timeless appeal. 

Classic perfumes often adhere to well-established fragrance structures and are celebrated for their enduring elegance and refined compositions. They typically include a harmonious blend of top, middle, and base notes, with a focus on florals such as rose, jasmine, and violet, evoking a sense of nostalgia and sophistication.

Title: Clove (Syzygium aromaticum)

Clove oil is rich in eugenol, which gives it its characteristic scent and also contributes to its strong antiseptic and analgesic properties. In perfumery, clove is often used as a middle note, adding depth and complexity to floral, oriental, and spicy compositions. It blends well with other essential oils such as cinnamon, nutmeg, orange, and ylang-ylang, creating rich and inviting fragrances.

In addition to its olfactory qualities, clove has a history of use in traditional medicine and culinary applications. However, due to its potent nature, it should be used sparingly and with caution in formulations, as it can be a skin irritant in high concentrations.

Title: Cloying

While these notes can be beautiful in moderation, when overused, they can dominate a composition, making it feel unbalanced and overpowering. A cloying scent lacks the necessary counterbalance of lighter, fresher, or more neutral notes that help create harmony and complexity in a perfume.

Perfumers aim to avoid cloying compositions by carefully balancing sweet and heavy notes with elements that add freshness, brightness, or even a touch of bitterness or spice. This balance ensures the fragrance remains pleasant and wearable over time.

In evaluating and creating natural perfumes, understanding the potential for cloyingness is essential for crafting scents that are appealing and enjoyable rather than overwhelming. Adjustments in formulation, dilution, and the use of complementary notes can help mitigate the risk of a fragrance becoming cloying.

Title: CO2 Extraction

In the supercritical state, CO2 possesses unique properties of both a liquid and a gas, enabling it to penetrate plant materials more effectively than traditional solvents. This method offers several advantages:

• Purity: The resulting extracts are exceptionally pure, as the CO2 evaporates completely, leaving no solvent residues.
• Low Temperature: The low operating temperatures help preserve the delicate aromatic compounds that might be damaged by the higher temperatures used in steam distillation or other extraction methods.
• Efficiency: CO2 extraction can efficiently capture a broad spectrum of aromatic constituents, including both volatile and non-volatile compounds.

CO2 extracts are highly prized in natural perfumery for their rich, true-to-nature aroma profiles. They often contain a more comprehensive range of aromatic components compared to essential oils obtained through steam distillation, providing greater depth and complexity to the fragrance.

Due to the precision and high quality of the extracts, CO2 extraction is commonly used for botanicals like frankincense, rose, chamomile, and vanilla, among others. These extracts contribute significantly to the creation of sophisticated and authentic natural perfumes.

In summary, CO2 extraction is a state-of-the-art technique that harnesses the power of carbon dioxide to produce highly aromatic and pure extracts, enhancing the palette of natural perfumers with superior quality ingredients.

Title: Cologne

A traditional cologne typically contains 3-5% perfume composition diluted in alcohol and distilled water. The essential oil content is lower compared to other types of fragrances like Eau de Toilette or Eau de Parfum, making cologne a lighter, less concentrated scent ideal for frequent application throughout the day.

The primary ingredients in a classic cologne are citrus oils such as bergamot, lemon, lime, and orange. These top notes provide an immediate burst of freshness and are often complemented by herbal, floral, and woody notes that add complexity and depth. Common supporting notes may include lavender, rosemary, neroli, jasmine, and sandalwood.

Cologne is favored for its invigorating and uplifting qualities, making it a popular choice for warm weather and casual settings. Its light formulation also makes it suitable for those who prefer a subtle scent or have sensitivities to stronger fragrances.

In summary, cologne is a citrus-based fragrance characterized by its light concentration and refreshing scent profile, offering a versatile and pleasant aromatic experience suitable for everyday wear.

Title: Concrete - (pictured Bulgarian Rose concrete)

Concretes are known for their rich, full-bodied aroma, capturing a wide spectrum of the plant's scent profile, including some of the more delicate and volatile top notes that may be lost in steam distillation. They are typically used as an intermediary product in the production of absolutes, which are further refined to remove the waxes and non-fragrant components.

Due to their concentrated nature, concretes are used sparingly in natural perfumery, providing depth and longevity to fragrance compositions. They are particularly valued for their ability to impart a true-to-nature scent, closely resembling the aroma of the fresh plant material. Concretes can be used directly in perfumery or further processed to obtain an absolute, which is a more refined and liquid form of the essence.

In summary, concrete is a solvent-extracted, waxy substance from botanical materials, prized for its rich and authentic aromatic properties in natural perfumery.

Title: Creamy

In the context of natural perfumery, the term "creamy" typically refers to a rich, smooth note that evokes a sense of silkiness and sensuality. This luxurious quality often carries a subtly sweet undertone, adding to the overall richness and depth of a fragrance. Creamy notes can derive from various natural sources:

• Vanilla: Known for its warm, sweet, and comforting scent, vanilla imparts a velvety smoothness to perfumes.
• Sandalwood: This precious wood adds a soft, woody creaminess, often enhancing the longevity and complexity of a fragrance.
• Coconut: With its tropical, milky aroma, coconut brings a luscious, exotic creaminess to perfumery blends.
• Lush Florals: Flowers like jasmine and frangipani naturally possess nectarous, creamy qualities, contributing to the opulent and indulgent character of a perfume.

Creamy notes are often used to balance and round out compositions, providing a sensual, enveloping experience that enhances the overall fragrance profile.

Title: Cumin

Botanical Name: Cuminum cyminum

Description: Cumin is an aromatic spice derived from the dried seeds of the Cuminum cyminum plant, belonging to the Apiaceae family. Known for its distinctive warm, earthy, and slightly bitter aroma, cumin has been utilised in various cultures for its culinary, medicinal, and perfumery purposes.

Historical Context in Perfumery: In ancient perfumery, cumin was valued for its potent and lingering scent, which added depth and warmth to fragrance compositions. It was often used in combination with other spices and resins to create complex and exotic perfumes. Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans incorporated cumin into their perfumery practices, recognising its ability to enhance the aromatic profile of their creations.

Extraction Method: The essential oil of cumin is typically extracted through steam distillation of the seeds. This process yields an oil rich in aromatic compounds, including cuminaldehyde, which contributes to its characteristic scent.

Aromatic Profile: Cumin essential oil has a strong, spicy, and slightly sweet aroma with a warm, nutty undertone. Its scent is both penetrating and long-lasting, making it a valuable component in natural perfume blends.

Uses in Natural Perfumery:

• Base Note: Cumin is often used as a base note in natural perfumery, providing a warm and grounding foundation for more volatile top and middle notes.
• Spicy Accents: Its spicy and earthy scent can add complexity and intrigue to perfumes, especially in oriental and exotic fragrance blends.
• Complementary Blending: Cumin pairs well with other spices like coriander and cardamom, as well as with resins like frankincense and myrrh, creating rich and multifaceted fragrances.

Cultural Significance: Beyond its use in perfumery, cumin has held cultural and medicinal significance across various ancient societies. It was often used in rituals and ceremonies and believed to possess protective and healing properties.

Modern Usage: Today, cumin essential oil continues to be a cherished ingredient in natural perfumery, appreciated for its unique aroma and its ability to evoke a sense of warmth and tradition. It is used sparingly due to its potent scent but remains an important component in the palette of natural perfumers.

By understanding the historical and aromatic significance of cumin, modern natural perfumers can create fragrances that pay homage to ancient traditions while appealing to contemporary olfactory preferences.

Title: Destructive Distillation

In the realm of natural perfumery, destructive distillation refers to the process of heating natural materials such as seashells, woods, or resins in the absence of air to break them down into volatile compounds. This method involves intentionally burning the material, resulting in the formation of unique aromatic substances with distinct smoky, leathery, and sometimes tar-like bouquets. These materials can add depth and complexity to a fragrance, often imparting a rugged, earthy, or mysterious quality.

• Seashells: When subjected to destructive distillation, seashells can produce a unique marine, smoky aroma.
• Woods: The process can yield rich, smoky, and leathery notes, commonly found in materials like birch tar.
• Resins: Resins like frankincense or myrrh can develop intensified, smoky, and balsamic scents through this method.

Destructive distillation is a technique that transforms the raw natural material into a more complex and concentrated aromatic substance, often used to create deep, enduring base notes in natural perfumery compositions.

Title: Distillate

In the context of natural perfumery, a distillate is the aromatic liquid that results from the process of distillation. This process involves heating botanicals such as flowers, leaves, wood, or resins to extract their essential oils. As the material is heated, the steam carries the volatile compounds through a condenser where they are cooled and collected as a liquid. This liquid, the distillate, contains the concentrated essence of the original plant material.

Distillation has a long history and is one of the oldest methods of extracting aromatic compounds, dating back to ancient civilisations. The technique was notably refined by Tapputi-Belatekallim, a Mesopotamian perfumer and chemist who is often considered one of the first recorded practitioners of distillation around 1200 BCE. Tapputi's methods involved the use of a still and other rudimentary distillation apparatus to produce fragrant oils and waters.

In natural perfumery today, distillates are prized for their purity and the richness of their scent profiles. Commonly distilled materials include:

• Roses: Producing rose water and rose essential oil.
• Lavender: Yielding lavender essential oil.
• Sandalwood: Resulting in sandalwood essential oil.
• Frankincense: Producing frankincense essential oil from resin.

The quality of a distillate can be influenced by factors such as the distillation method, the quality of the raw materials, and the expertise of the distiller. High-quality distillates are essential for creating perfumes with true-to-nature scents and therapeutic properties.

Title: Distillation

Distillation is a crucial process in natural perfumery, involving the separation and extraction of aromatic compounds from botanical materials through the use of heated water. This method has been used since ancient times to create essential oils and hydrosols (floral waters) from a variety of plant materials, including flowers, leaves, wood, and resins.

The distillation process involves heating water to produce steam, which passes through the botanical material. The heat and steam cause the volatile aromatic compounds to evaporate and then condense into liquid form as they cool. The resulting liquid, known as the distillate, contains the concentrated essence of the plant.

There are several types of distillation used in perfumery:

1. Steam Distillation: The most common method, where steam is passed through the plant material, carrying the volatile compounds into a cooling chamber where they condense into a mixture of essential oil and water. The essential oil is then separated from the water.

2. Hydro Distillation: This method involves submerging the plant material directly in water, which is then heated to produce steam. The steam rises, carrying the aromatic compounds with it, which are then condensed and collected.

3. Destructive Distillation: A less common method that involves heating materials such as seashells, woods, or resins to the point of burning, resulting in a material with a smoky, leathery bouquet. This technique intentionally alters the chemical composition of the original material to produce unique aromatic compounds.

Historically, distillation has been practiced for thousands of years, with evidence of its use in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia. One of the earliest recorded distillers was Tapputi-Belatekallim, a Mesopotamian perfumer and chemist who lived around 1200 BCE. Her techniques laid the foundation for modern distillation practices.

Distillation remains a fundamental technique in the creation of natural perfumes, valued for its ability to produce pure, high-quality essential oils that capture the true essence of the original botanical material.

Title: Dry Down: 

The final stage of a perfume’s development on the skin, where the base or bottom notes become most prominent and enduring. This phase occurs after the initial top notes have evaporated and the heart notes have mellowed. In natural perfumery, dry down reveals the deep, rich scents derived from materials like resins, woods, and musks, which are known for their longevity and stability. These base notes provide the lasting impression of the fragrance, creating a signature scent that can linger for hours. The art of crafting a well-balanced dry down is crucial for natural perfumers, as it ensures the perfume evolves beautifully over time, maintaining its complexity and allure.

Title: Earthy Notes

Refers to perfume notes that evoke the rich, natural scent of soil, moss, and other elements of the earth. These notes are characterised by their deep, grounding, and sometimes musty aroma, reminiscent of the forest floor or freshly turned soil. Common ingredients that contribute to earthy notes in natural perfumery include patchouli, vetyver, oakmoss, and mushroom (cepes). They add depth and complexity to a fragrance, often serving as base notes that provide a solid foundation and enhance the longevity of the perfume. Earth Notes are particularly valued in natural perfumery for their ability to connect the wearer to nature and evoke a sense of grounding and stability.

Title: Eau de Cologne

Also known simply as Cologne, it refers to a type of fragrance composition characterised by its fresh, citrusy, and light scent profile. Eau de Cologne typically contains a high proportion of citrus oils such as bergamot, lemon, and orange, giving it a vibrant and refreshing aroma. The composition generally consists of approximately 3-5% perfume concentration diluted in a mixture of alcohol and distilled water. Originally developed in Cologne, Germany in the 18th century by Italian perfumer Johann Maria Farina, Eau de Cologne is known for its invigorating and revitalising qualities, making it a popular choice for daytime use and warmer climates. It is valued for its crispness and ability to provide a clean, brisk fragrance experience.

Title: Eau de Parfum

Eau de Parfum (EdP) is a category of fragrance known for its higher concentration of perfume oils compared to other types. Typically containing between 8-15% perfume composition blended with alcohol, Eau de Parfum strikes a balance between potency and elegance. In some formulations, a small amount of distilled water or floral hydrosol (less than 5%) may be added to enhance the fragrance profile without diluting the intensity of the scent. This concentration level gives Eau de Parfum a longer-lasting and more pronounced fragrance presence on the skin compared to lighter formulations like Eau de Toilette or Eau de Cologne. Eau de Parfum is favored for its depth and sophistication, making it suitable for both daytime and evening wear, offering a richer olfactory experience that evolves over time.

Title: Eau de Toilette

Eau de Toilette (EdT) represents a popular category in modern perfume making, known for its balanced composition and versatility. Typically comprising a perfume oil concentration ranging from 4 to 8%, blended with alcohol, Eau de Toilette strikes a middle ground between lightness and longevity. To refine the fragrance profile, a small percentage of distilled water or floral hydrosol is often incorporated, enhancing the scent without compromising its character. Eau de Toilette is widely favored for its fresh and vibrant notes that offer a pleasant and enduring fragrance experience suitable for daily wear. Its moderate intensity makes it an ideal choice for various occasions, providing a refined scent that evolves gracefully over time on the skin.

Title: Enfleurage

Enfleurage is an ancient method used to extract aromatic essences from botanical materials. This meticulous process involves placing fragrant flowers or botanicals on sheets of glass that have been coated with a layer of fat, often animal fat. The petals are repeatedly replaced and the fat is allowed to absorb their fragrance over time, resulting in a solid, scented pomade. Enfleurage is valued for its ability to capture delicate floral scents that are not easily extracted by other methods, preserving the purity and subtlety of natural fragrances.

Title: Essence

In perfumery, essence refers to the concentrated aromatic oils extracted from natural raw materials such as flowers, fruits, spices, woods, and resins. These essences are the fundamental building blocks used by perfumers to create fragrances. Each essence contributes its unique scent profile, ranging from floral and fruity to woody and spicy, ensuring diversity and complexity in perfume compositions. Extracted through various methods such as distillation, expression, and enfleurage, essences form the core ingredients that define the character and quality of natural perfumes.

Title: Essential Oil

Essential oils are volatile aromatic compounds extracted from botanical sources through processes like distillation or cold-pressing. These oils capture the characteristic scents and therapeutic properties of plants, making them prized ingredients in natural perfumery and aromatherapy.

Steam Distillation: This method involves passing steam through plant material in a closed system. The steam causes the release of essential oils from the plant cells, and upon cooling, the mixture separates into water and essential oil, with the oil floating on top.

Expression (Cold-Pressing): Used primarily for citrus fruits such as lime, bergamot, and orange, this technique involves mechanically pressing the rind of the fruit to extract the essential oil. Unlike steam distillation, expression does not involve heat, preserving the delicate aroma of citrus oils.

Essential oils vary widely in scent and therapeutic properties, providing natural perfumers with a diverse palette to create fragrances that range from citrusy and fresh to floral and woody.

Title: Expression

Expression is a method used to extract aromatic materials, specifically essential oils, from plant sources, primarily citrus peels. Unlike steam distillation, which uses heat and steam, expression involves mechanical pressure to squeeze out the volatile oils contained in the rind or peel of fruits.

Process: Citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, and bergamots are commonly processed using expression. The fruit peel is mechanically pressed to rupture the oil-containing glands, releasing the essential oil along with some of the fruit's aromatic compounds. The resulting oil is then collected and used in natural perfumery, cosmetics, and aromatherapy.

Expression is favoured for citrus oils because it preserves the fresh, vibrant aroma of the fruit without exposure to heat, which can alter or degrade the delicate citrus scent. This method ensures that the extracted oils retain their true fragrance and therapeutic properties, making them valuable ingredients in fragrance compositions and other applications.

Title: Extrait

Extrait, also known as extrait de parfum or pure perfume, represents the highest concentration of scent in perfume making. It typically contains between 15% to 30% perfume composition blended with alcohol or another diluent.

Characteristics: Extrait is revered for its rich and intense fragrance profile, offering a potent olfactory experience that lingers on the skin for an extended period. Due to its high concentration of aromatic compounds, only a small amount is needed to achieve a lasting scent, making it one of the most luxurious and long-lasting forms of fragrance.

Application: Extrait is often preferred for special occasions or evening wear, where its deep, complex notes can unfold and evolve over time. Its luxurious nature and high concentration make it a coveted choice among perfume enthusiasts and connoisseurs.

Production: The production of extrait involves meticulous blending of essential oils, absolutes, and other aromatic ingredients with a carefully measured amount of alcohol or diluent. This meticulous process ensures that the final product maintains its intensity and integrity.

Title: Fixative

Fixatives are natural materials or compounds used in perfumery in small quantities (typically 1% to 3%) to enhance the longevity and stability of a perfume composition on the skin. These substances help to anchor the volatile aromatic components, slowing their evaporation and extending the overall duration of the fragrance.

Types of Fixatives:

• Distilled Water and Floral Hydrosols: These are byproducts of essential oil distillation and impart a subtle aroma while contributing to the overall scent profile.
• Resin and Wood Tinctures: Extracts from resins such as benzoin or tinctures from woods like sandalwood add depth and warmth to perfumes, while also serving as fixatives.
• Styrax Benzoin: A resinous material with a sweet, balsamic scent that helps to blend and harmonise perfume compositions.
• Vegetable Glycerin: Known for its moisturising properties, vegetable glycerin also acts as a fixative in perfumery.

Function: Fixatives work by binding to the skin and slowing the evaporation rate of the more volatile fragrance components. This helps the perfume to linger longer and maintain its character throughout the day.

Application: Perfumers carefully select fixatives based on their ability to complement the overall fragrance and enhance its longevity. The choice of fixative can significantly influence the final scent profile and performance of a perfume.

Natural Origins: In natural perfumery, fixatives are derived from botanical sources, aligning with the tradition of using natural materials to create luxurious and enduring fragrances.

Title: Flacon: 

A flacon refers to a bottle, typically crafted with delicate or ornate design elements, specifically used for storing perfumes. These bottles are often designed to enhance the aesthetic appeal of the fragrance they contain and may feature intricate decorations or elegant shapes. Flacons are generally equipped with tight-fitting stoppers or caps to preserve the fragrance from evaporation and oxidation.

Origins: The term "flacon" originates from the Old French word "flagon," which historically referred to a container for liquids, particularly wine or perfume. Over time, it evolved specifically to denote a perfume bottle, emphasising its importance in the presentation and preservation of fragrances.

Characteristics: Flacon bottles vary widely in size, shape, and material, ranging from small, portable vessels to larger, decorative containers. They are designed not only to hold perfume but also to showcase the craftsmanship and artistry associated with perfumery.

Importance: Beyond functionality, flacons serve as collectors' items and symbols of luxury, often adorned with intricate detailing, engravings, or labels that reflect the brand identity and the essence of the fragrance they hold.

Usage: Perfumers and fragrance houses carefully select flacons to complement the aesthetic and sensory experience of their perfumes, ensuring that the design harmonises with the fragrance's story and target audience.

Cultural Significance: Throughout history, flacons have symbolised elegance, refinement, and the art of perfumery, making them prized possessions and desirable gifts in both personal and ceremonial contexts.

Title: Flat Note

In perfumery, a flat note refers to a fragrance component that lacks vibrancy, depth, or complexity. It is characterised by its dull or uninspiring quality, often perceived as lacking liveliness or distinctiveness within a perfume composition.

Characteristics:

• Lack of Lift: Flat notes typically do not contribute to the overall brightness or freshness of a fragrance.
• Absence of Body: They may lack richness, depth, or intensity, making them less prominent or noticeable in the scent profile.
• Monotonous Quality: These notes may impart a dull or uninteresting aspect to the perfume, failing to evoke a memorable or captivating olfactory experience.

Causes:

• Poor Quality Ingredients: Flat notes can result from the use of inferior or improperly sourced raw materials.
• Imbalanced Composition: Inadequate blending or formulation may lead to certain notes overshadowing others, diminishing their individual characteristics.
• Storage and Ageing: Improper storage conditions or prolonged ageing of perfumes can cause ingredients to degrade, resulting in flat or stale notes.

Perfumer's Perspective:

• Perfumers strive to avoid flat notes by carefully selecting high-quality ingredients and achieving a harmonious balance of fragrance components.
• Through skilful blending and experimentation, perfumers enhance the complexity and dynamism of perfume compositions, ensuring each note contributes to a cohesive and engaging olfactory experience.

Evaluation:

• During perfume development, perfumers and evaluators assess for flat notes to refine and improve the fragrance's overall quality and appeal.
• Consumer feedback plays a crucial role in identifying and addressing flat notes, guiding perfumers in creating perfumes that resonate with diverse preferences and expectations.

Enhancement:

• Techniques such as layering complementary ingredients, adjusting concentrations, or incorporating aromatic modifiers can help mitigate flat notes and elevate the perfume's sensory allure.
• Continuous innovation and adherence to quality standards contribute to the creation of perfumes that captivate and leave a lasting impression on the wearer.

flower based composition

(pronounced foo-zhayr) any ferny, mossy scent with lavender at its heart; usually includes patchouli, labdanum, vanilla, tonka and benzoin

typified by light and airy notes found in green and citrus essences such as galbanum, violet leaf, lemon, lime, grapefruit, bergamot

fruit essences, usually does not include citrus oils; some examples of fruity essences are davana, magnolia, black currant bud, Roman chamomile; some fruit essences can be obtained through the use of tinctures of fruit like fig, dried currant, and berries

There are many species of gardenia, but the most cultivated for its beauty and scent is Gardenia jasminoides called also Cape jasmine.

Its intoxicating scent is found as absolute, but you can make oil extraction yourself if you have a plant.

Its aroma is a kind of lemony jasmine and very strong . Half a dozen flowers are enough to modify completely the smell of one litre of vegetable oil or butter.

Grapefruit cold-pressed citrus paradisi 

fresh scent of cut grass or fresh leaves; violet leaf absolute is a green note with a green cucumber-like scent; cardamom typifies a spicy/green note; coriander is a classic green note

sticky, resinous substances; plant sap exudates; balsams can also be called gums

pungent or chemical character within a perfume composition

an essence typified by a coumarin character; tonka, lavender absolute, liatris

the first notes you smell in a perfume; they’re the opening note, the lead or hook note; relatively fleeting, usually lasting no more than 10 or 20 minutes

intoxicating and stimulating

notes which normally classify or identify the perfume family or theme of the composition; for instance, if your theme is a white floral, then you would blend some combination of jasmine, neroli, tuberose, gardenia tinctures and other ‘white’ flower oils as the main component of this note

intense and oftentimes cloying note

typified by green and somewhat camphoraceous scents in combination; lavender, rosemary, sages and mints are common herbal essences

sweet, syrupy note

notes incorporating sweet, powdery and resinous essences

whole botanical materials immersed in a hot medium, diluent or carrier; botanical material in warmed oil is considered an infusion

raw materials (essential oils, resins, absolutes, concretes, etc.) which do not dissolve in a diluent (alcohol, solvent, oil, water, etc.)

There exists some 200 species of jasmine. Jasmine oils are extracted commercially from the jasmine Zambac (Arabian Jasmine) and jasmin grandiflorum (Common Jasmine).

Jasmine oil cannot be extracted by steam distillation. The main modern comercial method of extracting Jasmine oil is via solvent extraction.

Jasmine concrete is produced by solvent extraction of the fresh flowers.

Concrete of Jasmine sambac is a deep orange translucent mass of a jam like consistency. The sambac smells heady and intoxicating. Deep exotic floral with indolic, animalic undertones.

Concrete of grandiflorum is dark orange mass of jam like consistency. Grandiflorum is heady, intoxicating and fruity an exotic floral with peachy fruity notes.

Jasmine absolute is extracted from the concrete using alcohol.

Jasmine wax is a by product of this process.

Jasmine flowers of all varieties can be tinctured for use in perfumery.

Dried jasmine flowers usually don't have much of a smell and are mainly used in tea.

The Kadamba or Anthocephalus Cadamba tree is native to Northern India. An essential oil and a hexane extraction is produced from the flowers but the yeild is very small. The perfume from the flowers is intoxicating at night. 

According to Steffen Arctander "This is one of the rare perfume materials which deserves a permanent and prominent place on the perfumer's shelf." 

He describes it as "woody floral and sweet odor with a short lived top note. The dry out is delightfully sweet floral, reminiscence of champaca and neroli. The tenacity of this fragrance is almost incredible." 

Ref: Steffen Arctander; Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin

Lavender

Lavandula angustifolia, Lavandula hybrida, Lavandula luisieri, etc.
Also known as: True Lavender, English Lavender, Lavandin, Spanish Lavender

Description:
Lavender is a cornerstone of both natural perfumery and aromatherapy. With its complex aromatic profile ranging from herbaceous and floral to woody, sweet, and balsamic, it offers versatility across perfumery styles. Multiple species and extraction methods result in very different scent profiles.

Types of Lavender in Perfumery:

• Lavandula angustifolia (Bulgarian, French, Kashmir):

  • Essential oil is floral-herbaceous, soft, sometimes sweet or green, depending on terroir.

  • French lavender: cool, clean, herbal dry-down

  • Indian Kashmir: clean with sweet undertone

• Lavandula luisieri (Spanish Lavender Seville):

  • Typically extracted as an absolute, with woody-spicy notes and a complex, slightly fermented floral character.

• Lavandula hybrida (Lavandin Abrialis):

  • Considered lower-grade in perfumery due to its medicinal, camphoraceous scent, more aligned with functional aromatics (e.g., eucalyptus, tea tree, camphor).

Lavender Absolute:

According to Arctander:

"Lavender absolute... of very rich, sweet-herbaceous, somewhat floral odor; in dilution it bears a close resemblance to the odor of the flowering lavender shrubs. Its woody-herby undertone and coumarin-like sweetness duplicate the odor of the botanical material far better than the essential oil."

The absolute is sweeter but less floral than the essential oil and blends well with it to recreate the authentic scent of blooming lavender.

Perfumery Notes:

• Note Family: Floral-Herbaceous

• Note Type: Heart to Top Note

• Texture: Silky, balsamic, powdery, sometimes crisp

• Emotion: Comforting, clean, nostalgic, grounding

Blends Well With:

As noted by Arctander, lavender blends beautifully with:

• Citrus: Bergamot, lemon, orange

• Herbal: Rosemary, clary sage, pine

• Resins: Labdanum (excellent fixative in lavender accords)

• Others: Clove oils (e.g., for “Rondeletia” style perfumes), oakmoss, patchouli, liatris, and fluve

🧬 Extraction Types:

• Essential Oil: Distilled from the flowering tops (true lavender, French, Bulgarian)

• Absolute: Solvent-extracted, more complete in capturing the woody-sweet herbaceous profile of the plant

• CO2 Extraction (rare): Offers a truer-to-plant profile with some earthy, round notes

Regions:

• France, Bulgaria, India (Kashmir), Spain, Australia

Unique Characteristics:
Lavender is one of the rare aromatic plants whose absolute and essential oil differ notably—each offering distinct strengths. It’s also notable for straddling both floral and herbaceous scent families, making it a bridge note in many natural compositions.

Citrus limonum
Also known as: True Lemon, Citronnier, Limone

Description:
Cold-pressed from the fresh peel of Citrus limonum, lemon essential oil is one of the most recognisable and widely used citrus oils in both natural perfumery and aromatherapy. It has a bright, sharp, sparkling aroma with sweet, tart, and slightly green undertones. Its fresh and volatile nature makes it a top note that adds liveliness and radiance to any fragrance composition.

Note Family: Citrus
Texture: Zesty, effervescent, light, volatile
Emotion: Uplifting, clarifying, joyful, clean
Analogy: Freshly peeled lemon, sunlit garden, clean linen, lemon zest on fingertips

Blends Well With:

Other Citrus: Orange, Bergamot, Lime, Grapefruit

Herbal: Rosemary, Basil, Thyme, Lemongrass

Floral: Lavender, Neroli, Rose

Woods & Resins: Frankincense, Myrrh, Cedarwood

Spices: Ginger, Black Pepper, Coriander

Lemon lifts a blend with its crisp brightness, often used in colognes, herbal compositions, and detox-style aromatherapy accords.

Extraction Method:

Cold pressing of fresh lemon peel

Regions:

Commonly produced in Italy, Spain, California, and Argentina

Safety Note:
Cold-pressed lemon oil contains furanocoumarins and is phototoxic. Care should be taken with topical applications in sun-exposed areas. A distilled lemon oil is available as a safer alternative for leave-on products.

Unique Characteristics:

Highly volatile: offers strong top-note presence but fades quickly

Often used in natural cleaning products, eaux de cologne, and bright, youthful perfumes

Known to oxidise quickly—store in a cool, dark place with minimal air exposure

Citrus aurantifolia

Also known as: Mexican Lime, Key Lime Cold-pressed lime oil is extracted from the peel of the Citrus aurantifolia fruit, resulting in a bright, zesty, and effervescent aroma. It’s intensely fresh, green, and citrusy, with a sharp top note that lifts and energizes perfume compositions. This oil is notably phototoxic when cold-pressed, so must be used with caution in topical applications.Note Family: Citrus
Texture: Sharp, juicy, tart, volatile
Emotion: Invigorating, cheerful, refreshing
Analogy: Crushed lime peel, summer cocktails, tropical sunlight

Description:

Blends Well With:

Other Citrus: Bergamot, Lemon, Orange, Grapefruit

Herbal: Basil, Coriander, Lemongrass

Floral: Neroli, Ylang-Ylang, Lavender

Woody: Cedarwood, Sandalwood

Spices: Ginger, Cardamom

Cold-pressed lime enhances bright top notes, bringing a crisp and sparkling dimension to compositions.

Extraction Method:

Cold pressing of fresh lime peel (zest)

Regions:

Primarily grown and processed in Mexico, India, and the West Indies

Safety Note:
Due to its high furanocoumarin content, cold-pressed lime oil is phototoxic. Avoid skin exposure to sunlight after topical use unless using a furanocoumarin-free (FCF) version or distilled lime oil.

Unique Characteristics:

Cold-pressed lime oil is more intense and green than distilled lime oil

Prized for use in eau de cologne, summer accords, and natural cleaning blends

Offers a short but vibrant burst in perfumery due to its volatility

Massoia bark cryptocaryo massoio – prohibited (should not be used in fragrance)

(same as heart note)notes which normally classify or identify the perfume family or theme of the composition; for instance, if your theme is a white floral, then you would blend some combination of jasmine, neroli, tuberose, gardenia tinctures and other ‘white’ flower oils as the main component of this note

typified by oak moss, tree mosses and forest floor essences

intense and intoxicating essences such as rose, jasmine, hyacinth and other rich florals

refers to the melody within the composition, the song of the perfume, the theme, or to a particular part of a perfume or aromatic used within the composition ('galbanum is a note in this perfume'), or it refers to how the composition is perceived, i.e. ‘floral notes’, ‘woody notes’, ‘green notes’

According to Steffen Arctander in Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural origin: " Part of the "romance" or "thrill" in perfumery work lies in the fact that, not only are all the materials different in odor but hardly ever will two perfumers give identical descriptions of the same material or the same perfume"

relating to the sense of smell

Commiphora erythraea
Also known as: Sweet Myrrh

Description:
Opoponax is an aromatic gum resin derived from the Commiphora erythraea tree, native to parts of East Africa and the Middle East. Deeply resinous, rich, and sweet, it exudes a warm, animalic, and slightly smoky scent profile. The resin is reddish-brown and sticky, with strong fixative properties, making it a staple in oriental, balsamic, and mossy-woody perfume accords.

Forms of Use in Natural Perfumery:

• Opoponax Resinoid:
  Extracted via solvent methods; used as a fixative to deepen and anchor blends.
  Aroma: Intense, balsamic, animalic, sweet-resinous.

• Opoponax Essential Oil:
  Steam-distilled; a more accessible form for perfumers without the equipment to prepare resinoid.
  Note: Quality can vary; ensure the oil is truly from Commiphora erythraea and not substituted or diluted.

Note Family: Balsamic, Resinous, Woody, Oriental
Texture: Thick, syrupy, sticky, dense
Emotion: Mystical, grounding, sensual, introspective
Analogy: Ancient temple incense, warm animal skin, sunbaked forest floor

Blends Well With:

• Citrus: Bergamot, Sweet Orange, Lemon

• Floral: Rose, Jasmine, Ylang-Ylang

• Spices: Cinnamon, Clove, Cardamom

• Woods: Sandalwood, Cedarwood, Patchouli

• Resins: Frankincense, Myrrh, Benzoin

• Herbal: Lavender, Sage, Thyme

These combinations yield deep, sensual fragrances with a warm, smoky, and meditative core.

Extraction Method:

• Solvent extraction (resinoid)

• Steam distillation (essential oil)

Unique Characteristics:

• Often confused with Myrrh, but opoponax is sweeter, smokier, and more animalic, whereas myrrh leans fresher and sharper

• Used sparingly due to its potent, dominating character

• Revered in both perfumery and ritual incense traditions

system of storing bottles of perfume making materials typified by stepped shelving

typified by amber notes and spice

Iris florentina, Iris pallida, Iris germanica

Common Names: Orris Root, Orris Butter, Beurre d’Iris, Orris Absolute

Description:
Orris is derived from the aged rhizomes (rootstock) of the iris plant—primarily Iris pallida and Iris florentina. The roots are aged for a minimum of three years to develop their fragrance, which is then extracted through several methods to yield various perfumery materials. Rich in α-irones, the aromatic compounds responsible for its violet-like, powdery aroma, orris is one of the most prized and expensive materials in natural perfumery.

Types of Orris Extracts

• Orris Butter (Beurre d’Iris):
  Obtained by steam distillation of aged roots. Despite the term "butter," it is not a true concrete, but a semi-solid, creamy mass.
  Aroma: Warm, sweet, powdery, violet-like; long-lasting and elegant.
  Regions: France, Italy, Morocco

• Orris Absolute:
  Extracted via solvent washing of orris butter, followed by careful vacuum distillation.
  Appearance: Pale yellow liquid.
  Aroma: Delicate, floral, faintly woody; used sparingly due to rarity and cost.

• Orris Resinoid ("Resin"):
  Produced by solvent extraction (e.g., with ethanol) from aged root.
  Texture: Honey-like, viscous.
  Note: Often more affordable than butter or absolute. Technically a concrete but called a "resin" due to its texture.

• Orris Powder:
  Ground aged root used in cosmetics, herbal sachets, and potpourri.
  Functions as a fixative and mild fragrance.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Floral, Powdery, Woody, Balsamic

Texture: Silky, creamy, buttery, powder-dry

Emotion: Elegant, nostalgic, calming, luxurious

Analogy: A velvet glove, vintage lipstick case, sunlit dressing table

Uses in Perfumery:

• Highly valued as a fixative and heart-to-base note component

• Imparts depth, elegance, and longevity to floral compositions

• Often used in violet, chypre, and aldehydic blends

Extraction Methods:

• Steam Distillation (for butter)

• Solvent Extraction (for resinoid and absolute)

Unique Characteristics:

• Requires 3+ years of aging to develop fragrance

• One of the most costly and labor-intensive natural materials

• Often substituted with synthetic irones due to cost

Tags: orris, iris, beurre d’iris, alpha-irones, iris pallida, violet note, powdery floral

collection of raw materials used by the perfumer to create perfume

(see Extrait) highest concentration of scent to diluent in perfume making; 15 to 30% composition blend to alcohol or diluent

an artist who creates perfume

"This term is a compound of two Greek words meaning "plant" and "healing" and is used to describe all forms of treatments using plants. In France this term is used to describe what we would call Medical Herbalism but aromatherapy is often included under the same heading"...Patricia Davis in "Aromatherapy, an A to Z".

It can be argued that perfumes created using vibrant, natural plant materials and extracts with no synthetic or chemical additives could also be regarded as a branch of Phytotherapy.

Fatty substance obtained through enfleurage; the pomade is then used for solid perfume making, or it is further processed by soaking the pomade in high proof alcohol for several weeks to obtain a fragrant tincture which is filtered and used to make alcohol based perfume. 

a note obtained through the blending of sweet, woody notes with fruity, green or citrus notes; typified by the use of vanilla, patchouli, benzoin, labdanum, cananga/ylang-ylang, rose, sandalwood and/or bergamot

botanical or animal based material used in perfumery; essential oils, absolutes, tinctures, infusions, concretes, pomades, CO2 extractions, etc. are all examples of a raw material

(see Balsam and Gums)sweet, warm, woody, resinous materials; exudates of trees.

Rosa damascena, Rosa centifolia

Common Names: Bulgarian Rose, Rose de Mai, Damask Rose, Cabbage Rose

Description:
Rose oil is extracted from the fragrant petals of Rosa damascena (Bulgarian) and Rosa centifolia (Moroccan, “Rose de Mai”). These flowers have been celebrated for centuries in both perfumery and traditional medicine. The various extracts—Rose Otto, Rose Concrete, and Rose Absolute—differ in process, scent character, and usage.

Types of Rose Extracts

• Rose Otto (Essential Oil):
  Steam-distilled from Rosa damascena. Pale yellow, sometimes solidifies when cold.
  Aroma: Rich, warm, floral-spicy with honeyed undertones. Fresh rose scent emerges more clearly when diluted. Most expensive of all rose extracts.

• Rose Concrete:
  Solvent extraction from fresh petals (usually Rosa damascena or centifolia).
  Appearance: Thick, jam-like mass (orange to greenish-yellow).
  Aroma (damascena): Sweet, rich, warm-floral with honey-spice notes.
  Aroma (centifolia): Sweet, floral, rich, with woody-tea-like nuances.

• Rose Absolute:
  Alcohol extracted from rose concrete.
  Aroma: Intense, true-to-flower, used widely in fine perfumery for its roundness and sensuality.

Rose Scent Classifications

(According to Shiseido’s classification of rose scent profiles):

1. Damask Classic – Traditional rose, strong and sweet.

2. Damask Modern – Sophisticated and passionate, with refined complexity.

3. Tea – Elegant, refined, with hints of green violet; common in hybrid tea roses.

4. Fruity – Echoes peach, apricot, and apple; bright and joyful.

5. Blue – Rare type combining tea and Damask Modern nuances.

6. Spicy – Clove-like warmth; a trait of many classic Damask types.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Floral, Powdery, Spicy, Green, Fruity

Texture: Velvety, honeyed, petal-soft, silky

Emotion: Romantic, sensual, nostalgic, comforting

Analogy: Velvet drapes in a sunlit room, dew-covered petals, a letter from a lover

Uses in Perfumery:
Rose oil and absolutes are used in floral, chypre, and oriental perfumes. Rose otto is prized for its tenacity and elegance; absolutes are used to round out floral bouquets or add sensuality to spicy or resinous blends.

Regions:
Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, France, India

Extraction Methods:

• Rose Otto: Steam distillation

• Concrete: Solvent extraction

• Absolute: Alcohol extraction from concrete

Aniba rosaeodora
Family: Lauraceae

Common Names: Brazilian Rosewood, Bois de Rose, Pau-Rosa

Description:
Rosewood essential oil is steam-distilled from the heartwood of Aniba rosaeodora, a majestic Amazonian tree reaching up to 30 meters in height. Belonging to the Lauraceae family, its wood is exceptionally rich in linalool, giving it a sweet, floral, slightly woody aroma reminiscent of rose — hence the name.

Aroma Profile:
Delicate yet radiant, rosewood oil has a light, rosy, floral scent with woody and citrus-laced undertones. It is uplifting, elegant, and gently persistent, often used to brighten and soften floral accords or add sparkle to citrus and woody compositions.

Uses in Perfumery:
Rosewood is used primarily as a fixative and modifier, especially in floral blends. It brings light, smoothness, and harmony to harsh notes. A classic component in high-end perfumes, it sweetens, lifts, and illuminates otherwise dull or heavy blends.

Regions:
Primarily Brazil, especially in the Amazon Basin. Sustainable cultivation efforts exist in regions like Silves and the Ducke Conservation Park, where certified ECOCERT oils are produced alongside conservation initiatives.

Extraction Method:
Steam distillation from the chipped heartwood

Goes Well With:
Rose, orange blossom, neroli, cedarwood, sandalwood, geranium, patchouli

Unique Characteristics:
Its high linalool content (up to 90%) makes it not only valuable in perfumery but also in aromatherapy, where it's used to support immune health, reduce fatigue, and gently uplift the mood. Its status as an endangered species has led to increased interest in sustainable plantations and bio-cultivation.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Floral, Woody, Fresh, Citrus-Floral

Texture: Silky, radiant, sheer

Emotion: Uplifting, serene, clarifying, balancing

Analogy: Sunlight through rose petals, a polished cedar writing desk, fresh linen in a blooming garden

Conservation Status:
Rosewood is endangered due to overharvesting for its fragrant wood, valued in luxury furniture, flooring, and musical instruments. Ethical perfumery sources only from sustainable, certified plantations.

Title: Saffron

Botanical Name

The botanical name of the plant used to produce saffron absolute is Crocus sativus.

Description

Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world, known for its dark red gold color. It is obtained from the flowers of the Crocus sativus. While the flowers themselves are light purple, the thread-like stamens within are deep red, and these stamens constitute the saffron. Harvested in the autumn, the process of separating the stamens from the flowers is extremely laborious, requiring 70,000 pounds of flowers to yield just one pound of saffron. The odor of saffron is reminiscent of sea air, making it a unique and luxurious component in natural perfumery.

Uses

• Perfumery: Saffron absolute is highly valued in natural perfumery for its unique and luxurious scent, adding a rich, exotic note to fragrances.
• Aromatherapy: Saffron absolute is used in aromatherapy for its potential therapeutic benefits due to its concentrated nature.
• Cosmetics: It is incorporated into skincare and haircare products for its aromatic properties and potential benefits to the skin.

Additionally, saffron is used to flavor and add a yellow color to rice and as a natural dye for fabrics.

Goes Well With

Saffron absolute blends well with a variety of essential oils and other natural extracts. Some popular combinations include:

• Sandalwood
• Vanilla
• Rose oils

The Extraction Process

1. Harvesting: The plant material is harvested at peak fragrance times in the autumn.
2. Solvent Extraction: The saffron stamens are processed to create a concrete using solvents.
3. Alcohol Extraction: The concrete is then treated with alcohol to separate the absolute.
4. Purification: The absolute is purified and filtered to remove any impurities.

Why Choose Absolutes?

Absolutes are chosen for their unmatched aromatic complexity and strength, making them invaluable in creating luxurious and enduring perfumes.

Conclusion

Saffron absolute is an essential component in the world of natural perfumery, offering an intense and multifaceted scent that enhances any fragrance blend. Its versatility and potency make it a favorite among perfumers and aromatherapists alike. In natural antiquarian botanical perfumery, saffron is especially prized for its unique and rich aroma, adding an exotic touch to various fragrance compositions.

raw materials (essential oils, resins, absolutes, concretes, etc.) which dissolve in a diluent (alcohol, solvent, oil, water, etc.)

fluid materials used to dissolve and extract volatile elements of botanicals (water, alcohol, hexane, oil, etc.)

Notes which are typically hot in character, such as clove, pepper and cinnamon.

Styrax benzoin, Styrax tonkinensis, Styrax paralleloneurum

Common Names: Benzoin, Gum Benjamin, Styrax Resin

Description:
Benzoin is a balsamic resin obtained by tapping the bark of trees in the Styrax genus, primarily S. benzoin (Sumatra) and S. tonkinensis (Siam). The raw resin exudes from the tree and hardens into reddish-brown tears, which are collected and used for both perfumery and medicinal purposes.

Aroma Profile:
Warm, sweet, vanillic, and ambery with hints of cinnamon, honey, and caramel. It possesses a comforting, round aroma and serves as a fixative in natural perfumery. The Siam variety is generally softer, sweeter, and creamier, while the Sumatra type is slightly smokier and more intense.

Uses in Perfumery:
Widely used as a fixative and base note, Benzoin is prized in oriental, amber, and gourmand compositions. It softens sharp edges, rounds out florals, and anchors fleeting top notes. In natural perfumery, it’s often tinctured or used in resinous bases and incense.

Regions:
Thailand, Laos, Vietnam (Siam benzoin); Indonesia (Sumatra benzoin)

Extraction Method:
The resin is harvested directly from tree bark incisions and may be tinctured in ethanol or solvent-extracted for perfumery.

Goes Well With:
Labdanum, vanilla, tonka bean, patchouli, sandalwood, rose, myrrh, opoponax

Unique Characteristics:
Its warmth and sweet depth make Benzoin a classic anchor in perfumery, especially beloved in sacred blends, incense, and emotional compositions. It is also used in natural skin care as a healing and preservative agent due to its antiseptic properties.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Balsamic, Sweet, Resinous, Amber

Texture: Syrupy, resinous, velvety

Emotion: Comforting, grounding, nostalgic, devotional

Analogy: Warm church pews in winter, spiced caramel, aged parchment with vanilla ink

Cautions:
Benzoin is a known allergenic and sensitiser for some individuals. Use in moderation in topical applications.

characterized by taste utilizing essences such as vanilla, honey and warm balsamic notes

Tagetes patula, Tagetes minuta, Tagetes erecta

Description:
Tagetes oil is steam distilled from the flowering tops of several species in the Tagetes genus, most notably T. minuta (Southern Cone Marigold), T. patula (French Marigold), and T. erecta (African or Aztec Marigold). Native to Central and South America and widely cultivated in Africa and India, Tagetes plants are known for their vibrant yellow-orange flowers and their strong, herbaceous aroma.

Aroma Profile:
Powerfully green, sharp, and herbaceous, with fruity-apricot-like top notes and a pungent undertone reminiscent of bitter herbs and tarragon. Some species exhibit a camphoraceous or slightly rubbery nuance. The drydown may reveal a balsamic, hay-like character.

Uses in Perfumery:
Primarily used in chypre, herbal, fougère, and rustic floral accords for its assertive top note. In small amounts, Tagetes can impart a fresh, wild character and is occasionally used to round off green or citrus notes. It also finds limited use in flavouring (notably in tobacco) and traditional healing practices.

Regions:
India, South Africa, Argentina, Kenya

Extraction Method:
Steam distillation of flowering tops

Goes Well With:
Citrus oils (especially orange, lemon), galbanum, lavender, clary sage, artemisia, and vetiver

Unique Characteristics:
Highly diffusive and tenacious, Tagetes oil is used with caution due to its phototoxic properties (especially T. minuta) and allergenic potential. Its unusual profile requires a delicate hand in formulation.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Green, Herbal, Fruity, Balsamic

Texture: Sharp, juicy-green, sticky-herbaceous

Emotion: Wild, alerting, rustic, nostalgic

Analogy: Overgrown herb garden in late summer, wildflowers crushed underfoot, bitter fruit peel in sunlight

Cautions:
Phototoxic and potentially sensitizing. Avoid in leave-on products or use below IFRA-specified thresholds.

Tea absolutes Camellia sinensis , thea chinensis , thea sinensis 

strength of a scent or note characterized by the length of time it lasts on the skin

A tincture is an alcoholic extract of natural raw materials. Common tinctures include: Tincture of vanilla, Tincture of Ambrette seed, Tincture of Orris, Tincture of benzoin, and Tincture of Labdanum. 

Treemosses usnea / pseudoevernia furfuracea See Oakmoss

Title: Tuberose

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) is a highly fragrant perennial plant native to Mexico, and it has been cherished for centuries for its captivating, creamy white blooms that emit an intense, rich floral aroma. In the realm of natural perfumery, tuberose is considered one of the most luxurious and sensual floral notes, often used in high-end and artisanal fragrances.

Characteristics and Extraction

The scent of tuberose is complex and multi-faceted, featuring notes of creaminess, sweetness, and an almost narcotic intensity that is both heady and seductive. This makes it a powerful addition to perfumes, where it often serves as the heart or middle note, providing depth and opulence to a fragrance composition.

Tuberose is typically extracted in two primary forms used in natural perfumery:

1. Tuberose Absolute: This is obtained through solvent extraction, resulting in a thick, deep-colored liquid that retains the full spectrum of the flower's aroma. Tuberose absolute is highly concentrated and potent, often used in minute quantities due to its strength.

2. Tuberose Concrete: This solid, waxy substance is also produced via solvent extraction and then refined. Tuberose concrete is admired for its golden color and solid form, which can be further processed to produce the absolute.

Perfumery Uses

Tuberose is a versatile note in perfumery, complementing and enhancing a wide range of other fragrance components. It pairs beautifully with:

• Other White Florals: Such as jasmine, orange blossom, and gardenia, creating lush, romantic bouquets.

• Spicy Notes: Like clove and cinnamon, which can temper its sweetness and add warmth.

• Woody and Balsamic Bases: Such as sandalwood, amber, and vanilla, which provide a rich, enduring foundation for the tuberose's voluptuous aroma.

Example Uses in Fragrance Types:

• Oriental Perfumes: Tuberose adds a rich floral heart to oriental blends, complementing spices and resins.

• Floral Bouquets: As a dominant or co-dominant note, tuberose enhances the overall floral experience.

• Chypre and Green Scents: It adds an opulent floral dimension to the fresh, mossy, and woody components.

Additional Notes

• Historical Significance: Tuberose has been used in traditional garlands and ceremonial offerings, symbolizing both love and danger due to its intense fragrance.

• Modern Popularity: It remains a staple in luxury perfumery and niche fragrances, appreciated for its ability to evoke both vintage glamour and modern sophistication.

References

• "Perfumes: The A-Z Guide" by Luca Turin and Tania Sanchez: This book offers insightful reviews of perfumes, including those featuring tuberose.

• "The Essence of Perfume" by Roja Dove: A comprehensive guide to the world of perfume, including the role of natural ingredients like tuberose.

• "Fragrant: The Secret Life of Scent" by Mandy Aftel: A deep dive into the history and use of natural ingredients in perfumery, including tuberose.

Tuberose remains a beloved and pivotal element in natural perfumery, admired for its ability to convey an air of luxury and mystique. Its unique aroma continues to inspire perfumers and captivate fragrance enthusiasts around the world.

To make an ultrasonic extract the raw material which has been ground to a powder is suspended in a solvent. High frequency vibration is applied and in a short amount of time the extraction is complete. 

Lippia citriodora

(syn. Aloysia triphylla, Aloysia citriodora)

Description:
Verbena absolute is a fragrant extract derived from the lemon-scented leaves of Lippia citriodora, a shrub native to South America and now widely cultivated in Mediterranean climates. Unlike the more common essential oil, the absolute is obtained through solvent extraction and is deeper, more rounded, and longer-lasting in perfume compositions.

Aroma Profile:
Bright, citrusy, and green with sweet, herbal-floral nuances and a soft lemon balm-like undertone. The absolute has more body than the essential oil and adds a sparkling, uplifting freshness to compositions.

Uses in Perfumery:
Often used in cologne, floral bouquets, green accords, and herbal compositions, verbena absolute imparts radiance and a refreshing lift. It's also used to introduce natural lemony notes without the instability of citrus oils.

Regions:
South America (native), cultivated in France, Spain, North Africa

Extraction Method:
Solvent extraction from dried leaves

Goes Well With:
Lemongrass, rose, lavender, litsea cubeba, neroli, basil, petitgrain

Unique Characteristics:
Verbena absolute offers a more persistent and less volatile lemon scent than citrus oils. It is sometimes confused with lemon verbena essential oil, though the two differ significantly in tenacity and depth.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Citrus, Green, Herbal, Floral

Texture: Silky, light, bright, leafy

Emotion: Uplifting, cheerful, refreshing, clear-headed

Analogy: Morning lemon tea, sunlit garden herbs, lemon zest on a cool breeze

Cautions:
Verbena (especially the essential oil) may be sensitising. Always check concentration and batch-specific safety.

Chrysopogon zizanioides (formerly Vetiveria zizanoides)

Description:
Vetiver oil is steam-distilled from the fibrous rootlets of a tall perennial grass native to India, but now cultivated in tropical regions including Haiti, Réunion, Java, and the Caribbean. Prized since antiquity for its grounding aroma and fixative qualities, vetiver offers a wide olfactory range depending on origin and aging. Freshly distilled vetiver may exhibit a cool, damp, earthy scent—sometimes likened to raw potato—whereas aged vetiver deepens into smoother, woody, smoky, and resinous nuances.

Uses in Perfumery:
Used as a base note and natural fixative, vetiver lends depth and longevity to a composition. It is essential in chypre, fougère, oriental, and woody accords. Its complexity also makes it suitable for soliflore interpretations and gender-neutral fragrances.

Regions:
India, Haiti, Indonesia (Java), Réunion, Caribbean

Extraction Method:
Steam distillation from washed, dried, and chopped rootlets

Goes Well With:
Sandalwood, patchouli, oakmoss, labdanum, bergamot, clary sage, rose, cedarwood

Unique Characteristics:
Vetiver’s aroma profile varies greatly by terroir and treatment. Haitian vetiver is smoother and more refined; Javanese vetiver is smokier and more tenacious. Often referred to as the “oil of tranquillity,” vetiver is grounding, stabilizing, and emotionally soothing.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Woody, Earthy, Smoky, Balsamic

Texture: Damp, rooty, resinous, velvety, mineral

Emotion: Grounding, contemplative, meditative, nostalgic

Analogy: Damp soil after rain, aged oakwood, forest floor, smoked roots

Arctander Tag (paraphrased):
"Heavy, woody-earthy oil of great tenacity, with a sweet, balsamic-ambergris-like undertone. One of the most important fixatives of perfumery."

Wintergreen (toxic)

Artemisia absinthium

(Sensitizer – use with caution in perfumery)  – see conflicting information at www.thegoodscentscompany.com regarding artemisia absinthium l. Cuba, Artemisia absinthium l. oil Italy, Artemisia absinthium l. oil Poland

Description:
Wormwood oil is steam-distilled from the aerial parts of Artemisia absinthium, a silvery-green herb native to Europe and parts of Asia. It is most famous as a key ingredient in absinthe and is known for its bitter, medicinal, and slightly camphoraceous scent. Its use in natural perfumery is limited due to potential sensitization and regulatory restrictions.

Uses:
Used sparingly in natural perfumery for its sharp green-herbal top notes that lend complexity to fougère, chypre, and herbal accords. Occasionally used in modern aromatic perfumes to introduce a bitter twist or medicinal note.

Goes Well With:
Lavender, rosemary, vetiver, clary sage, galbanum, and citrus oils (especially bergamot and lemon).

Regions:
Cuba, Italy, Poland

Extraction Method:
Steam distillation from the flowering tops and leaves

Unique Characteristics:
Contains thujone (a known neurotoxin in large quantities), which contributes to its bitter, almost metallic edge. Wormwood has a historical legacy in medicine and spirit-making and remains symbolically tied to mysticism and ritual.

Descriptive Language Categories

Note Family: Herbal, Bitter, Green

Texture: Piercing, sharp, dry, volatile

Emotion: Stimulating, bracing, slightly unnerving

Analogy: Crushed alpine herbs, tincture of absinthe, medicinal tonic

Arctander Tag (paraphrased): "Very powerful, bitter-aromatic odor, reminiscent of cedarleaf and thuja, with a dry-herbal aftertone."